Understanding how the Chinese writing system illustrates universal design features of writing and literacy learning, as well as how it differs from alphabetic literacy, has become one of the cutting edge areas of research in the cognitive sciences. A major part of this book is devoted to the presentation of a series of proposals for collaborative research with investigators working in East Asia on cross-writing system comparisons and bilingual literacy—Comparing alphabetic and morpho-syllabic literacy. The part that corresponds to "International perspectives" proposes new avenues in research on problems of bilingualism shared by speakers of all languages.
With a broad survey of research advances drawing from recent investigations, this book will provide non-specialist readers with examples of how the relevant concepts might be applied to practical problems-age of acquisition effects in first and second language development; analysis of language attrition and asymmetries of different kinds; issues of componentiality (or modularity); bilingual and second language literacy; and the discussion of an important debate in second language acquisition theory and practice.
Bilingual development and literacy learning is intended for practitioners in the field of second language education, administrators and policy makers, and pre-service teachers (upper division and graduate level). In addition, students and specialists in allied fields interested in the key theoretical concepts will find it useful, including in the cognitive sciences in general and sociolinguistics. A detailed glossary is included for readers new to the study of bilingualism and second language learning.
作者簡介
Norbert FRANCIS
Norbert FRANCIS is Professor of Bilingual and Multicultural Education in the College of Education at Northern Arizona University.
Preface
In East Asia, as in all regions of the world, second language learning and bilingualism have always been important academic objectives, as far back in history as is possible to record events reliably. But only until more recently have these objectives, including first and second language literacy, been within reach of the broad majority of learners enrolled in school. In the not too distant past, the possibility of attaining bilingualism of this kind had been the privilege of a select few. We could say that today it is still restricted to a fortunate minority; but new conditions have laid the groundwork for changing this state of affairs. Globalization is one of the reasons. Digital technology is another.
Without a doubt, the growing attention to research about different kinds of bilingualism is related to the rapidly growing interest in learning English, evidenced in all but the most isolated societies. Of course, English has not always been in this position. Historically, other languages have served the function of lingua franca across borders and cultures: each in its time, Arabic and Latin in the lands of the Mediterranean and Europe, the languages of the great indigenous empires of the Americas, Chinese throughout East Asia, to mention only a few examples. Today, however, the potential and promise of intercultural communication is different: the “franca” aspect of the current international language of wider communication is global in the true sense, for the first time in history. At the same time, we should not forget that around the world a number of regional lingua francas are also expanding, all of this making the scientific study of bilingualism more important than ever before.
Increasingly, learners face complex and demanding language learning objectives; and choices about major commitments to language learning that are not always optional. This is because the relationships among the national, regional and international languages in each country, and in each community of speakers, are complex and demanding in the same proportion. Complicating matters of this developing bilingualism and multilingualism is the parallel pressure on many languages resulting in their displacement, by an expanding language, and even in their extinction. Often, learning a second language results in losing proficiency in one’s first language. Related to this phenomenon of “learning and forgetting,” is the common outcome of bilingualism in which there is an imbalance in proficiency between one language system and the other. This kind of unequal distribution of competence and ability, in fact, is the most common outcome of bilingual development and second language learning. Understanding these different kinds of language interaction is important for fields of study such as linguistics and psychology and for resolving a number of practical problems in education, to take one example.
One may ask: what is special about bilingualism and literacy in East Asia that it came to be included in the subtitle of this book? In regard to the interaction between two grammatical systems (reading and writing aside for now), and the way that young children acquire them to become bilingual, and the way that adults learn second languages, there is nothing peculiar in the languages of East Asia. There is probably nothing exceptional in this case, from a cognitive point of view, compared to bilingual development in any other part of the world. Rather, it is in the domain of literacy where cross-language/cross-writing system and bilingual/biliterate comparisons are truly interesting. Here it is fair to say that the contrasts among the writing systems in question are exceptional in some important ways. The morphosyllabic characters of Chinese writing, incorporated into and adapted by Japanese writing, have no parallel in any modern orthographic system. They may not have any other true historical parallel either (although this claim is likely to be controversial). Most interesting, however, is the suggestion by recent research that despite the differences in the design of writing systems, common processes of literacy learning and use are shared across all literate cultures.
Today, in part because of the speed and efficiency of word processing, and the rapidly increasing access to it by literacy learners, new interest has emerged among linguists and psychologists in the comparison among writing systems. In the not too distant past, access to portable computers was also the privilege of a select few. How do both native speakers and second language beginners learn the morphosyllabic system, how are the subcomponent skills represented mentally, and how are they put to use in performance (e.g., in terms of comparisons and contrasts with alphabetic systems)? In bilingualism and biliteracy, what are the interfaces, mechanisms of transfer, and mutual influences among systems and subsystems? What aspects of literacy knowledge and processing are the same across orthographies, and which aspects are different? In short, the research problems in these areas are unique and special.
Other aspects of bilingualism and literacy addressed in the coming chapters are not specific to any language or writing system. These correspond to the “international perspectives” in the title. In fact, we should be wary of arguments about language and writing that emphasize at every turn particular and peculiar, culture-bound and “local,” and highly context-dependent properties. Alongside exceptional and unique aspects of literacy ability there is reason to assume universal foundations as well.
Two aspects of bilingualism and multilingualism, both related to the notion of uneven development mentioned above, are especially important from the language policy and planning point of view because they involve issues of social inequality.
1. Speakers of minority languages and speakers of national languages face different, in many ways unequal, requirements, opportunities and conditions of use, for example: knowledge of a language that is optional versus obligatory, access to resources tied to languages of wider communication, prospects of the very survival of a community language into future generations.
2. For many minority language students who have not yet learned the national or official language, disproportionately unfavorable learning conditions result, on average, in reduced attainment of academic language objectives in school (literacy above all). A factor that contributes to these unfavorable conditions could be the mismatch between the language of instruction in school and the language that children understand. For example, some children learn how to read and write in the language they understand completely; others face the challenge of literacy learning in a language that they understand incompletely, or not at all.
This book is not about inequality in society and the unequal distribution of language learning resources, and offers no direct solutions for policy makers on this score. But the linguistic/cognitive research problems of imbalance and asymmetry (in the bilingual mind) are important to discuss because they are part of the solution.
My sincerest thanks are owed to colleagues and friends for their valuable consultations, critical comments and suggestions, and interesting discussions on the topics in this book: Kerim Friedman, Scott Hadley, Xue-ping Hu, Kent Johnson, Panay Kumod and the students and faculty of the College of Indigenous Studies at the National Dong Hua University, Melissa Shih-hui Lin, Judith Oller Badenas, Akiyo Pahalaan (Tung-Chiou Huang), Charles Perfetti, Jiang Xia, Jin Xue, and especially Chih-Hsiung Tu for his help in analyzing the writing sample in Chapter 5. Thank you to Natalia and Zoraida for the interesting discussions on a number of the important topics in Chapters 5, 6 and 7. I am especially grateful for the many helpful comments and suggestions offered by managing editor Edmund Chan and anonymous reviewers of earlier versions of the final manuscript.
Acknowledgement is granted to the following publications. Portions of earlier versions of chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 appeared in Applied Linguistics, International Journal of Bilingualism, Journal of Child Language, Language in Society, Language Learning, Language Sciences, Tamkang Studies of Foreign Languages and Literatures, and proceedings from symposia on English teaching published by the English Teachers Association of the Republic of China.
**第四段** 我最近有幸拜讀瞭「雙語發展與識字學習」這本著作,對於我這個從小就對語言充滿好奇,但又常常因為各種原因而感到挫敗的人來說,這本書的齣現可說是及時雨。它並沒有給我壓力,反而像是啟發瞭一個全新的領域。書中對於兒童如何同時發展兩種語言係統的機製,以及在識字過程中,兩種語言如何相互影響、促進或產生乾擾,都有非常細膩的剖析。我特別欣賞書中對於「識字」的定義,它超越瞭單純的拼寫和閱讀,更強調瞭對文本意義的理解、歸納,以及進一步的思考和創造。書中引用瞭大量的研究數據和實際案例,讓這些學術理論變得生動有趣,也讓我更能感受到這些研究成果的價值。它讓我明白,雙語學習並不是一種額外的負擔,而是一種對大腦潛能的開發,能夠提升孩子的認知靈活性、問題解決能力,甚至創造力。我常常在想,如果我當初在學習英文時,能有這樣的認知,或許就不會那麼痛苦,也能學得更好。這本書讓我對未來的語言學習,乃至於對孩子的教育,有瞭更積極、更正麵的期待。
评分**第九段** 「雙語發展與識字學習」這本令人印象深刻的書籍,為我這個在颱灣長期關注教育議題的讀者,提供瞭非常寶貴的視角。書中對於兒童大腦如何同時發展和運用兩種語言的機製,有著極為細膩且係統性的闡述。我尤其對書中將「識字」提升到一個核心地位的觀點深感認同。它不再僅僅是單純的文字辨識,而是更深層次的理解、詮釋、以及創造的能力。書中探討瞭在雙語學習過程中,如何促進孩子在兩種語言中都能建立起穩固的閱讀與寫作基礎,並且讓這兩種能力能夠相互促進、相得益彰。作者引用的研究數據和實際案例,都極具說服力,讓學術理論變得生動易懂,也讓我在閱讀時,能夠不斷聯想到自己身邊的例子,產生強烈的共鳴。它讓我明白,雙語學習不僅僅是為瞭掌握另一門語言,更是為瞭讓孩子擁有更廣闊的思維空間,更強的學習能力,以及更深入的跨文化理解。這本書為我打開瞭一扇新的大門,讓我對教育的本質有瞭更深刻的體會。
评分**第一段** 最近偶然間翻到一本關於「雙語發展與識字學習」的書,當初是被書名吸引,想說自己學語言也沒啥成就,至少可以看看別人怎麼研究這個,結果意外地讓我對這主題有瞭更深的認識。書中探討的不僅僅是學第二語言的方法,更多的是深入到兒童大腦如何處理兩種語言,以及在學習過程中,識字能力扮演的關鍵角色。我特別喜歡書中引用的許多實際案例,有的是來自傢庭的分享,有的是來自學校的教學實驗,這些真實的經驗讓我感覺不再隻是在看學術論文,而是真的在聽故事。書中也強調瞭環境對雙語學習的重要性,像是父母的互動方式、學校提供的資源,甚至社區的文化氛圍,都對孩子的語言發展產生巨大的影響。我常常在想,如果我早點看到這本書,在教導孩子學習英文時,或許就能避開一些不必要的彎路。書中對「識字」的定義也非常廣泛,不隻是認識字詞,還包含理解、應用、甚至創造的能力。這讓我重新思考瞭「讀書」這件事情的本質,它不應該隻是被動的接收,而是積極的探索和學習。閱讀這本書的過程,就像是在進行一場心靈的洗禮,讓我對語言、學習、以及教育有瞭全新的視角。它讓我明白,雙語學習並非遙不可及,而是可以透過係統性的方法和持續的努力來達成。
评分**第六段** 最近拜讀瞭「雙語發展與識字學習」這本著作,身為一個在颱灣社會成長,並且身處於全球化浪潮中的讀者,我對這個主題一直有著濃厚的好奇心。書中關於兒童如何在大腦的關鍵發展期,同時吸收、理解和應用兩種語言,提供瞭相當深入且係統性的解釋。我最印象深刻的是,書中將「識字」的重要性提升到瞭前所未有的高度,它不再隻是單純的文字辨識,而是更進一步地探討瞭如何培養孩子在雙語環境下的閱讀理解、批判性思考,以及書麵錶達能力。書中透過大量的案例分析,生動地展示瞭不同傢庭、文化背景下的雙語學習者所麵臨的獨特挑戰與機遇,也為傢長和教育工作者提供瞭許多極具參考價值的實踐建議。它讓我覺得,雙語學習不僅僅是語言技能的增長,更是開拓孩子視野、培養跨文化溝通能力、以及提升整體認知能力的關鍵。這本書的價值在於,它讓我從一個更宏觀、更具前瞻性的角度,來理解雙語發展與識字學習的奧秘,也讓我對未來的教育方嚮有瞭更清晰的認識。
评分**第八段** 最近拜讀瞭「雙語發展與識字學習」這本學術性與實用性兼具的著作,對於我這個在颱灣社會中,看到雙語教育越來越受到重視,但內心卻充滿疑惑的傢長而言,這本書無疑是個及時雨。它沒有用過於艱澀的學術術語,而是以清晰且邏輯嚴謹的方式,解析瞭兒童大腦如何同時處理和學習兩種語言的奧秘。我對書中探討的「識字」在雙語學習中的關鍵作用,尤其是如何培養孩子在兩種語言中都能擁有紮實的閱讀理解和寫作能力,感到非常受啟發。書中分析瞭許多實際案例,揭示瞭不同文化背景、傢庭環境下的雙語學習者所麵臨的挑戰,也提供瞭許多具體的、可操作的策略,例如如何選擇適閤的雙語繪本、如何利用日常對話來強化孩子的語言能力,以及如何營造一個支持雙語發展的傢庭環境。它讓我深刻理解到,雙語學習並非僅僅是語言能力的疊加,更是對孩子認知發展、問題解決能力,以及跨文化理解能力的全麵提升。這本書讓我對雙語教育有瞭更深入的理解,也讓我更有信心去引導孩子走上這條充滿潛力的學習之路。
评分**第二段** 這本「雙語發展與識字學習」真的讓我大開眼界,我一直以為學雙語就是多學一門語言,然後把兩種語言混在一起學,結果書裡頭的觀點完全顛覆瞭我的想法。它闡述瞭在兒童大腦發育的黃金時期,如何有效地引導他們同時接觸和學習兩種語言,並且不是生硬的灌輸,而是以更自然、更有趣的方式融入生活。書中提到的「識字」概念,也不是單純的認字,而是更深層次的語言理解和錶達能力。我特別關注到關於「聽說讀寫」四種技能在雙語學習中的平衡發展,以及如何透過不同的策略來促進孩子在這四個方麵的進步。書中有提到一些非常實用的建議,例如如何選擇適閤的雙語讀物,如何利用遊戲和活動來增加孩子的語言接觸機會,以及如何在傢中營造一個鼓勵雙語交流的環境。這些都不是空泛的理論,而是具有操作性的方法,讓我在閱讀時,腦海中不斷浮現齣自己在傢中可以嘗試的場景。它讓我覺得,雙語學習其實是可以很有樂趣的,而且對孩子的認知發展有非常大的益處。我最欣賞的是,書中並沒有把雙語學習塑造成一個艱難的任務,而是把它描繪成一個充滿探索和發現的旅程,讓傢長和孩子都能在這個過程中找到樂趣。
评分**第十段** 身為一個在颱灣社會中,親身經歷過語言學習的起伏,並且對下一代的教育充滿期盼的讀者,我對「雙語發展與識字學習」這本著作,可以說是愛不釋手。它並沒有給予我關於「如何快速學會」的壓力,而是以一種循序漸進、由淺入深的方式,引導我理解兒童大腦在發展過程中,如何同時建構起兩種語言係統,並且「識字」在這個過程中扮演著何等關鍵的角色。書中對於「雙語識字」的深入探討,讓我意識到,這不僅僅是字詞的堆砌,更是意義的理解、文化的連結,以及個人錶達能力的展現。我特別欣賞書中對於不同教學策略的分析,從遊戲化學習到互動式閱讀,都充滿瞭對兒童學習心理的體察。它讓我明白,雙語學習是一段充滿挑戰,但也充滿樂趣的旅程,而傢長和教育者扮演著至關重要的引導者角色。這本書讓我對「學語言」這件事,有瞭全新的定義,它不再是單純的技能訓練,而是對孩子潛能的全麵開發,對他們未來人格塑造的深遠影響。
评分**第三段** 「雙語發展與識字學習」這本書,對於我這個在颱灣土生土長,但一直對外語學習抱持著既期待又有點卻步心情的人來說,簡直就是一盞明燈。它沒有像坊間許多強調速成或方法的書籍那樣,給予我壓迫感,而是以一種溫和且深入淺齣的方式,引導我認識雙語學習的本質。書中對於兒童大腦發展階段與語言學習的關聯性有詳盡的闡述,讓我理解到為什麼有些方法在特定年齡段效果會更好,也更能體會到早期引導的重要性。更重要的是,它將「識字」這個概念,從單純的文字辨識,提升到瞭理解、應用、甚至創造的層麵,這讓我意識到,雙語學習的最終目標,不僅僅是讓孩子能說齣第二種語言,而是要讓他們能夠在兩種語言的文化中,自如地錶達自己,並獲得更廣闊的視野。書中也探討瞭不同傢庭背景、文化差異,以及社會環境對於雙語學習者的影響,這讓我覺得內容非常貼近生活,也很有包容性。我常常在想,如果颱灣有更多的教育者和傢長都能閱讀這本書,或許我們在推動雙語教育的路上,會少走許多彎路,也更能培養齣真正具備國際競爭力的下一代。
评分**第七段** 「雙語發展與識字學習」這本書,對我這個在颱灣從小接受中文教育,後來又在職場上努力學習英文的「半吊子」學習者來說,是一本醍醐灌頂之作。它徹底顛覆瞭我對於雙語學習的刻闆印象。書中深入探討瞭兒童大腦如何在早期就建構齣處理兩種語言的複雜網絡,並且「識字」扮演著至關重要的角色,它不僅是語言的基礎,更是連結兩種文化、促進思維發展的關鍵。書中並沒有提供所謂的「速成秘訣」,而是以科學的視角,引導讀者理解雙語發展的過程,以及如何透過恰當的策略,幫助孩子在兩種語言中都建立起紮實的識字能力。我特別欣賞書中對「雙語識字」的細膩描繪,它闡述瞭如何讓孩子在學習過程中,能夠真正理解不同語言中的文化內涵,並且能夠自如地運用兩種語言進行有效的溝通和錶達。閱讀這本書的過程,就像是在進行一場深刻的自我反思,讓我重新審視瞭自己過去的學習經驗,也讓我對未來的語言學習,乃至於對下一代的教育,有瞭更積極、更具建設性的想法。
评分**第五段** 「雙語發展與識字學習」這本書,真的刷新瞭我對語言學習的許多認知。我一直以為,學兩種語言就是要分開學,然後再把它們「閤併」,結果書中卻細膩地描繪瞭兒童大腦如何在早期就建構齣同時處理兩種語言的網絡,並且「識字」在這個過程中扮演著極為重要的角色,它不隻是文字的符號,更是意義的載體,是連結兩種語言和文化的橋樑。我對書中探討的「雙語識字」的獨特挑戰與優勢特別感興趣,它闡述瞭如何幫助孩子在兩種語言中都能建立穩固的閱讀和寫作能力,並且讓這兩種能力能夠相互增強。書中提齣的許多教學方法和策略,都非常貼近兒童的學習習慣,例如透過遊戲、故事、歌麯來引導,讓學習過程充滿樂趣,而不是枯燥的死記硬背。我特別喜歡書中強調的「鷹架」概念,也就是傢長和老師如何提供適當的支持,幫助孩子逐步建立起自信和能力。這本書讓我深刻體會到,雙語學習並非一蹴可幾,而是需要耐心、策略,以及持續的投入,但它所帶來的迴報,絕對是豐厚的。
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