具体描述
Eastern Encounters releases early Canadian women writers from a simple focus on autobiography and racial politics and interrogates their specific and sophisticated Asian influences. With a compelling reconstruction of historical context, Ganz has created perhaps the first book in a much-needed series that will revisit Canadian nationalism through the important cultural exchanges she examines. Though shaped with an Asian readership in mind, Eastern Encounters is an important work for all who wish to challenge the notion that Judeo-Christian traditions almost exclusively shaped early Canadian discourse.
远东的凝视：加拿大女性视野中的东方，1867-1929 一部深入探究十九世纪末至二十世纪初加拿大女性作家如何构建、感知并书写“东方”的开创性学术著作。 本书旨在揭示一个在加拿大文学和文化研究中长期被忽视的领域：在加拿大联邦成立（1867年）到“咆哮的二十年代”结束（1929年）这一关键历史时期内，加拿大女性作家们在她们的作品中描绘、想象和回应“东方”的复杂图景。这不仅仅是对异域风情的简单记录，而是一次对帝国主义话语、性别角色、文化焦虑以及身份构建的细致入微的考察。 研究背景与核心论点 在维多利亚时代晚期和爱德华时代，大英帝国的影响力遍及全球，加拿大作为自治领，其文化视野深受英国母国的制约与影响。与此同时，随着跨太平洋贸易和移民的增加，亚洲——尤其是中国、日本以及印度——开始以一种既神秘又具有潜在威胁的方式进入加拿大主流社会的视野。本书关注的重点是，处于帝国结构中的加拿大女性（她们自身也处于父权制社会结构下的边缘位置），是如何运用文学这一媒介来处理她们与“他者”——即东方——之间的关系。 本书的核心论点在于，加拿大女性作家的东方书写并非铁板一块的殖民主义叙事，而是充满了张力、矛盾与内在的协商。她们的文本既吸收了西方对东方“颓废”、“异域情调”和“永恒不变”的刻板印象，同时也展现出对殖民地经验、劳工困境以及对自身文化局限性的微妙反思。 内容结构与章节侧重 本书分为六个主要部分，每一部分都聚焦于特定的文学体裁、地理区域或主题关注点，共同构建起一个多维度的分析框架： 第一部分：帝国语境下的凝视——东方作为背景 本部分考察了早期加拿大文学中对东方意象的普遍运用。重点分析了早期的旅行文学、私人信件和早期小说（如早期的殖民地小说或家庭小说）中，东方是如何被用作衬托加拿大“文明”与“进步”的工具。分析将涉及加拿大作家如何应对英国对印度和远东的殖民叙事，以及这些叙事如何影响了她们对本土原住民文化的理解和书写。我们尤其关注那些以加拿大东部港口城市（如温哥华、维多利亚）为背景的作品，探讨这些门户城市在接收东方移民和文化冲击时所产生的文学反应。 第二部分：中国人的形象与劳工的困境 这是对加拿大历史上最具争议性的东方群体——华人移民——书写的最深入探讨。本书细致考察了在排华法案（如1885年和1923年的法案）出台前后，加拿大女性作家笔下的华人形象。我们区分了两种主要的描绘模式：一是父权社会框架下将华人男性描绘为对白人女性构成潜在威胁的“危险他者”；二是少数作品中，作家们对洗衣工、厨师、商贩等华人个体在艰苦移民生活中的人道主义关怀的零星展现。通过分析小说、诗歌和报刊文章，本书试图揭示女性作家在维护白人社会秩序和体现个人同情心之间的摇摆。 第三部分：日本的“审美化”与“异域情调”的建构 随着十九世纪末“日本热”（Japonisme）在西方世界的兴起，日本的艺术、审美和文化对加拿大知识分子产生了显著影响。本部分着重探讨加拿大女性作家如何吸收和转化这种审美趋势。她们笔下的日本往往是精致的、仪式化的、高度女性化的空间。分析将集中于对日本庭园、茶道、和服以及“艺伎”形象的文学处理。本书质疑，这种对日本的“审美化”是否成为一种逃避帝国主义责任的方式，将一个复杂的国家简化为可供消费的视觉符号，从而掩盖了真实的政治和人口流动问题。 第四部分：性别、身体与东方女性的刻板印象 本部分专门处理女性视角下的东方。在西方父权制和殖民主义的交织影响下，东方女性形象经常被塑造成两种极端：要么是顺从、被动的“东方淑女”，要么是充满诱惑、危险的“异域尤物”（如“中国娃娃”或“艺伎”）。本书将分析加拿大女性作家如何利用这些既有的刻板印象，来探讨自身的性别限制和解放的可能性。例如，一些作家通过将自己的角色置于东方环境中，来探索逃离传统加拿大社会对女性的期望。 第五部分：跨文化相遇与“混血儿”叙事 虽然在1929年以前，跨种族婚姻和后代在加拿大社会仍是禁忌话题，但文学作品中开始出现对文化融合与身份模糊的隐晦探索。本部分研究了那些描绘加拿大女性与东方男性或其后代之间关系的作品（或传闻）。这些叙事往往充满悲剧色彩，反映了当时社会对“血统纯正性”的执念，同时也预示了未来加拿大身份认同的复杂性。 第六部分：文学之外的回响——日记、书信与公共论述 本书最后一部分将视角扩展到更广阔的文化领域，考察了作家们在私人通信和公开演讲中对远东事务的态度。这包括她们对日俄战争、二十一条、以及对加拿大西海岸土地使用权的讨论。通过分析这些非虚构文本，我们可以更清晰地看到，文学创作中的想象与现实政治之间的相互作用和影响。 研究意义 《远东的凝视》填补了加拿大研究、文学史和后殖民研究之间的重要空白。它迫使读者重新审视加拿大作为一个“北方国家”的自我定义过程，并认识到其身份构建在多大程度上依赖于对“南方”或“东方”的持续投射与界定。本书为理解二十世纪早期加拿大文化如何在全球化和帝国主义背景下形成其特有的“他者”观念，提供了至关重要的文献支持和深入的理论阐释。
著者信息
作者简介
Shoshannah Ganz
Shoshannah Ganz is Associate Professor of English at Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland in Canada. Her areas of interest include Canadian literature; Canadian literature and ecology; and the influence of Japanese literature and culture on Canadian writers and writing. Shoshannah has published on a number of Canadian authors and co-edited The Ivory Thought: Essays on Al Purdy with the University of Ottawa Press in 2008. Her current research looks at the way industry is figured in the literature of Canada and Japan and the impacts of industry on humans and the more-than-human environment. This research extends beyond the literary texts to explore the remaking and remarketing of the post-industrial landscapes of Japan and Canada as tourist destinations.
Shoshannah Ganz
Shoshannah Ganz is Associate Professor of English at Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland in Canada. Her areas of interest include Canadian literature; Canadian literature and ecology; and the influence of Japanese literature and culture on Canadian writers and writing. Shoshannah has published on a number of Canadian authors and co-edited The Ivory Thought: Essays on Al Purdy with the University of Ottawa Press in 2008. Her current research looks at the way industry is figured in the literature of Canada and Japan and the impacts of industry on humans and the more-than-human environment. This research extends beyond the literary texts to explore the remaking and remarketing of the post-industrial landscapes of Japan and Canada as tourist destinations.
图书目录
Dedication
Introduction
1 Sara Jeannette Duncan, Mrs. Howard Vincent and Ellen Agnes Bilbrough: Canadian Travel Writing About Japan, China, and India
2 A Fictional Remembering of India? Anna Leonowens’s Travel Writing
3 The Eastern Threat to Women’s Enfranchisement in Nellie McClung’s Purple Springs
4 Literary Fake or Translating Genius? Onoto Watanna’s Translations of Japanese Literary Motifs from The Tale of Genji in Tama (1910) and The Honourable Miss Moonlight (1912)
5 The Teachings of the Compassionate Beck: Buddhist Philosophy, ilgrimage, and The House of Fulfilment
Postscript
Acknowledgements
Previously Published
Works Consulted
Index
Introduction
1 Sara Jeannette Duncan, Mrs. Howard Vincent and Ellen Agnes Bilbrough: Canadian Travel Writing About Japan, China, and India
2 A Fictional Remembering of India? Anna Leonowens’s Travel Writing
3 The Eastern Threat to Women’s Enfranchisement in Nellie McClung’s Purple Springs
4 Literary Fake or Translating Genius? Onoto Watanna’s Translations of Japanese Literary Motifs from The Tale of Genji in Tama (1910) and The Honourable Miss Moonlight (1912)
5 The Teachings of the Compassionate Beck: Buddhist Philosophy, ilgrimage, and The House of Fulfilment
Postscript
Acknowledgements
Previously Published
Works Consulted
Index
图书序言
Introduction (Excerpt)
Canadian Nationalism
The question of what constitutes Canadian identity and the closely related question of what represents a Canadian literary tradition and history have been at the core of the activities of Canadian literary critics and writers since the nascence of the Canadian nation with, and even before, confederation in 1867. In the early pre- and post-confederation years, a number of poets and writers were searching for Canadian topics and a poetry that could be celebrated as uniquely Canadian. Satirizing this struggle in the April 27, 1929 issue of the McGill Fortnightly Review, Montreal poet and critic F. R. Scott (1899–1985) published his much-quoted poetic critique of the Canadian Authors’ Association, an organization founded in 1921 “to promote the interests of Canadian writers” (Bentley 3). “The Canadian Authors Meet” refers back to the poets collectively known as the Confederation poets, “[Bliss] Carman, [Archibald] Lampman, [Sir Charles G. D.] Roberts, [William Wilfred] Campbell, [Duncan Campbell] Scott” (line 10). The poem concludes by summing up the state of establishment Canadian poetry as follows: “O Canada, O Canada, Oh can / A day go by without new authors springing / To paint the native maple, and to plan / More ways to set the selfsame welkin ringing?” (lines 21–24). Against this background of nationalist fervour encapsulated by declarations of “O Canada” and the “native maple,” F. R. Scott and other modernist poets were attempting to develop and define a more rigorous, experimental, and particularly international poetry—a poetry A. J. M. Smith (1902–1980) would call “cosmopolitan” in the Preface to the 1943 anthology The Book of Canadian Poetry (1943; rev. 1948, 1957). The modernist poetic and political opposition to the rhetoric of the local and national obsessions that had kept the “selfsame welkin ringing” for the first fifty years of Canadian literary history marked a shift in Canadian literature and culture.
While the above is a standard introduction to Canadian nationalist topics and values and the cosmopolitan perspective, as introduced by male critics/poets such as A. J. M. Smith and F. R. Scott, there also exists a parallel and somewhat different poetic history that chronicles not the “maple leaf forever,” but subtle expressions of Eastern influence and sensibility. The all-but-forgotten Canadian modernist poet Louise Morey Bowman (1882–1944), hailed in her day by American modernist poets, questions colonial presence in India in poems such as “Garden in Agra,” which she begins by asking, “Cool-blossomed English garden! What wide fate / Set you in burning breathless India?” (lines 1–2). The poem was originally published in Canadian Author’s Association Poetry Year Book 1926–1927 and republished by Wanda Campbell as part of her early Canadian women’s poetry recovery project in Hidden Rooms (2000). Bowman likewise works in the Japanese form of Hokku, showing—like many of the American modernist poets, and well ahead of her male Canadian modernist counterparts—the influence of Japanese poetics on the sparseness and form of modernist poetry. Part of Dream Tapestries (1924), “Twelve Hokku on a Canadian Theme” and “Life Sequence (In the Hokku Manner)” are republished in Campbell’s Hidden Rooms as early examples of the Japanese influence on Canadian women’s poetry. Bowman, among others, illustrates how women’s voices and the influence of the East on Canadian modernism and the Canadian literary tradition have been, as Campbell’s title clearly shows, hidden and excluded from Canadian history and the Canadian literary canon. This book is dedicated to the study of Canadian prose fiction and non-fiction. However, like Wanda Campbell’s anthology of early Canadian women’s poetry, this project is an attempt to recover women’s voices, and particularly those Canadian women influenced by Japan, India, and China.
The study of Canadian literature as a field and the efforts to define Canadian nationalism emerged together in the 1960s, with contributions by a number of leading writers and critics, including most famously George Grant, Northrop Frye, Margaret Atwood, and Robert Kroetsch. While I will be outlining their theories of Canadian nationalism—particularly for a readership in Asia, who may not be familiar with their ideas—I will intersperse and conclude this survey by questioning the ways in which the ideas about nationhood promoted by these writers and thinkers are complicated or reinforced by the history and literature relating to Asian Canadian identity.
In 1965, nearly a hundred years after confederation, George Grant would ask “can the disappearance of an unimportant nation be worthy of serious grief?” (3). In his “Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism” Grant names many of the historical characteristics to which Canada looked in defining its collective identity. These qualities include, most succinctly “[t]he inherited determinism not to be Americans” (6) and allegiance to the British Crown as expressing “a continuing loyalty to the state” (6). Canada, writes Grant, was based on the “inchoate desire to build . . . a society with a greater sense of order and restraint than freedom-loving republicanism would allow” (6). Grant argues that “Canada’s disappearance was a matter of necessity” (4) and further that “[t]he aspirations of progress have made Canada redundant” (4). However, in the years of early nationhood (defined in this study as 1867–1929), Canada, in Grant’s estimation, was still attempting to preserve aspects of the British Crown in order to “distinguish [Canada] from the United States” (7). This summation undoubtedly explains aspects of early Canadian identity and culture. But in the case of writers such as Sara Jeannette Duncan, while connections to Britain existed in a limited sense, Canadian identity was expressed chiefly in setting itself apart from both the British and the American influences. This can be widely observed in early Canadian literature. However, Grant is not writing about or referring to the literature of early Canada; rather, his thesis is that “[t]he purpose of life is consumption” (7). When looking at early and contemporary Canada from an economic perspective, Grant’s estimations hold some truth. Canada’s economic ties with Britain in the nineteenth century were a necessary reality, just as, in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, trade with the United States and participation in global corporations is part of the Canadian and global economy. However, while the early Canadian women writers do express some relationship to Britain, chiefly through trade, the literature expresses a stronger determination to define Canadian identity as different from both British and American identity.
Northrop Frye, writing in the same year as George Grant, in his “Conclusion to A Literary History of Canada” (ed. Carl F. Klinck 1965) in referring to the literary history of Canada, settles on a single metanarrative for Canada as a nation. Of further importance to this study, Frye connects Canadian identity formation to the East. He writes, “Canada began as an obstacle, blocking the way to the treasures of the East, to be explored only in the hope of finding a passage through it. English Canada continued to be that long after what is now the United States had become a defined part of the Western world” (10). While Frye goes on to echo Grant’s determination of Canada as defined partly in opposition to the United States and partly through its alignment with the values and history of Britain, Frye does not see Canada as being lost to global trade or the American market economy. Rather, Frye develops the difference between Canada and the United States by suggesting that “[t]o enter the United States is a matter of crossing an ocean; to enter Canada is a matter of being silently swallowed by an alien continent” (11). Surely this difference signifies a terrifying unknowability to Canadian identity, although he later concludes this conversation by suggesting that “[t]he Canadian genius for compromise is reflected in the existence of Canada itself” (12). Ultimately, however, Frye argues the defining quality of Canada “is the position of the frontier in the Canadian imagination” (12). Frye explains that “[t]he frontier was primarily what separated the Canadian, physically or mentally, from Great Britain, from the United States, and even more important, from other Canadian communities” (13). In Frye’s summation, Canadians and Canadian literature were and would continue to be characterized by “what we may provisionally call a garrison mentality” (14). According to Frye “[t]he real terror comes when the individual feels himself becoming an individual, pulling away from the group, losing the sense of driving power that the group gives him, aware of a conflict within himself far subtler than the struggle of morality against evil” (15). It is in this context Frye postulates that it becomes easier to build more garrisons; the result is that this blocks the creative development of the nation and stymies the artist with “a dominating herd-mind in which nothing original can grow” (15).
Margaret Atwood’s own writing would belie this easy summation, and her own theory of Canadian literature would respond to Frye’s dismal proclamation about the climate of Canadian creativity. Writing in 1972, Atwood notes in Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature that “[u]ntil recently, reading Canadian literature has been for me and for everyone else who did it a personal interest, since it was not taught, required or even mentioned (except with derision) in the public sphere” (20). Certainly Frye’s contentions about the creative climate of Canada paints a picture of an environment hostile to innovation and individual talent—an environment that brings attention, like Atwood suggests, to the national literature through derision.
Atwood sets out to respond to this proclamation and, in the process, answer two questions in her work: “What’s Canadian about Canadian literature, and why should we be bothered” (20–21)? Without a doubt both these questions are pertinent to this study, although Atwood’s answer forms only a portion of the literary/critical history of Canadian literature and, perhaps, something of a response to Frye. Atwood contends that the study of Canadian literature “ought to be comparative” (23), going on to suggest that “it is by contrast that distinctive patterns show up most strongly” (23) and that “[t]o know ourselves, we must know our own literature; to know ourselves accurately, we need to know it as a part of literature as a whole” (23).
The necessity of the comparative component of knowing the self and the literature of the nation in relation to other nationalities and literatures applies to the study I am here undertaking. However, Atwood does not include Asian literature or culture in her study and refers primarily to comparing the literature of Canada to that of the Anglo-American tradition. Atwood goes on to respond specifically to Frye’s suggestion that knowing the self is at least in part “the same as the answer to another question: ‘Where is here’” (23)? The claim for the distinctiveness of Canadian literature and the Canadian experience are in part to be found in the answers to these questions. According to Atwood and echoing Frye, “Canada is an unknown territory for the people who live in it” (24) and “[w]hat a lost person needs is a map of the territory” (24). What Atwood provides is a guide and a “central symbol for Canada” (25) in the trope of survival. Atwood charts this central symbol of survival in the literature of English and French Canada from the early literature that deals with physical survival to the literature of the 1970s that deals with what Atwood characterizes as “spiritual survival” (26).
Robert Kroetsch, in “Disunity as Unity: A Canadian Strategy” (1989), observes, “The shared story . . . has traditionally been basic to nationhood” (61), yet he contends that “Canadians cannot agree on what their meta-narrative is” and that “this very falling-apart of our story is what holds our story together” (61). Referring to Yeats’ observation that “the centre does not hold” (62) Kroetsch argues that “[i]t was this very decentering that gave a new energy to countries like Canada” (62). Further, “Canada is supremely a country of margins, beginning from the literal way in which almost every city borders on a wilderness” (62). Returning to the earlier discussions of Grant and Frye, Kroetsch also suggests that “[w]e define ourselves, often, as the cliché has it, by explaining to Americans that we aren’t British, to the British that we aren’t Americans” (66); similarly, he echoes Atwood’s trope of survival when he notes, “[W]e survive by working with a low level of self-definition and national definition” (66). By highlighting what he sees as a lack of a single metanarrative to sum up the diversity of Canadians and the multiplicity of definitions of Canadians, Kroetsch identifies a key to understanding Canadian culture. He notes that “[w]e maintain ethnic customs long after they’ve disappeared in the country of origin” (66) and “[i]n Canadian writing there is little sense of a privileged self at the centre” (66). According to Kroetsch, the “archetypal Canadian” is characterized “by refusing to become a Canadian” (67).
I draw attention to these Canadian writers and critics because they highlight a number of the qualities that make Canada and Canadians distinctive; some or all of these characteristics contribute to the interactions and formations of relationships with and between Canadian writers and their travel to and writing about China, Japan, and India and, more broadly, to the subject of this study. Certainly many Canadian writers, particularly in their travels in China, Japan, and India, define themselves and their reactions to places and people—and thus promote their ideas about different cultures—with and against British and American norms, identities, and writing. Many Canadian writers also take the opportunity in their writing to promote various forms of Canadian nationalism.
The question that emerges is how these definitions of nationhood and nationalism that emerge in the writing about the East or reflecting the Eastern influence reinforce or support the theories of nationhood put forth by Grant, Frye, Atwood, and Kroetsch and if and how these theories work alongside the histories and stories of Asian Canadians? Certainly Atwood’s concept of survival could apply to the struggles for and emergence of an Asian Canadian presence in the literature; however, this is not in fact articulated as part of her study. Even Frye’s notion of a “garrison mentality,” constructed by Canadians to protect them from the Indigenous inhabitants and the wilderness, could arguably be seen as re-enacted in the position Canada eventually took toward immigrants from Asia and Asian Canadians. Extending this idea further, Canadians arguably used a form of garrison to incarcerate Japanese Canadians when they saw them as a threat; even before this, the federal government enacted laws to keep out Chinese, Japanese, and South Asian immigrants, thus forming a sort of national garrison around a predominantly white national identity. Certainly Kroetsch’s theory allows for a multiplicity of narratives of nationhood: it undermines the overdetermined and totalizing meta-narratives of nationhood that require an essentially white-settler history and, thus, allows for the margins and marginalized identities to become part of the fabric of nationhood.
Smaro Kamboureli, however, in the introduction to the first edition of Making a Difference: Canadian Multicultural Literature in English (2007), questions this idea of marginalization: “if we consider these authors in the various contexts that have produced their writing, it becomes apparent that ‘marginalization’, from an individual as well as a collective perspective, is impossible to define in any stable way” (xix). Thus, a clear articulation of the stories of nationhood that includes Asian presence from and before confederation requires not only a re-examination of the history and stories that are excluded in the nationalisms articulated by the founding and establishment Canadian scholars but also a rewriting of the story of nation to include Asian stories and origins as part of the emergence of Canada as a nation. Rather than relegating Asian Canadian presence to the “impossible to define” (Kamboureli xix) margins, this study intends to put the Asian influence on Canadian nation-building at the centre. Scholars such as Arun Mukherjee contend that “Canadian nationalism, for us non-whites, is a racist ideology that has branded us un-Canadian by acts of omission and commission” (“Canadian Nationalism” 89). A number of recent writers and scholars attempt to address the “acts of omission and commission” in the white-settler-culture, nation-building narrative, including Roy Miki and Smaro Kamboureli, and what follows will examine their perspectives.
This study intends to take the story of Canada back to the beginnings of Asian immigration and weave together the history of Canada with the emergence of the history and identities of Asian Canadians as part of the story of the historical creation of a Canadian national identity. Further, this study will emphasize that the influence of Asia on the formation of Canadian identity, culture, and literature has been a part of the story from the very beginnings of the nation—not just from within, but also from without. In this case I am referring to the Canadians who travelled to Asia and brought back stories, artifacts, religious experiences, and culture to their communities in Canada, as well as to the influence on Canadians from Asians living in Canada and becoming Canadians. I am also referring to the circulation of ideas about Asia that came from literature, art, and artifacts that were brought into the nation and into individual homes, museums, and public places through missionary activities, trade, and travel, and the impact of Asian culture on Canada through the impact of art and ideas from Asia. As the editors of ReCalling Early Canada: Reading the Political in Literary and Cultural Production (2005) note, “[E]arly Canadian artifacts offer particularly revealing sites in which it is possible to trace the gains and losses of the imposition of the nation—with its demands of cohesion and homogeneity—upon the many and various preoccupations of artists, writers, and cultural commentators” (Blair, Coleman, Higginson, York xxvii). An examination of the “early Canadian artifacts” thus shows the traces of the Asian influence and can contribute to “counteract[ing] the racist nationalist discourse of two founding nations” (Mukherjee, “Canadian Nationalism” 82) that would erase the presence of Asian Canadians from the otherwise homogenizing original nation-building story. This offers the possibility of both recuperating and reconfiguring the nation-building narrative to show a story of exchange and influence from Asia rather than merely erasing the differences or showing the racism of the early stories of nationhood.
Canadian Nationalism
The question of what constitutes Canadian identity and the closely related question of what represents a Canadian literary tradition and history have been at the core of the activities of Canadian literary critics and writers since the nascence of the Canadian nation with, and even before, confederation in 1867. In the early pre- and post-confederation years, a number of poets and writers were searching for Canadian topics and a poetry that could be celebrated as uniquely Canadian. Satirizing this struggle in the April 27, 1929 issue of the McGill Fortnightly Review, Montreal poet and critic F. R. Scott (1899–1985) published his much-quoted poetic critique of the Canadian Authors’ Association, an organization founded in 1921 “to promote the interests of Canadian writers” (Bentley 3). “The Canadian Authors Meet” refers back to the poets collectively known as the Confederation poets, “[Bliss] Carman, [Archibald] Lampman, [Sir Charles G. D.] Roberts, [William Wilfred] Campbell, [Duncan Campbell] Scott” (line 10). The poem concludes by summing up the state of establishment Canadian poetry as follows: “O Canada, O Canada, Oh can / A day go by without new authors springing / To paint the native maple, and to plan / More ways to set the selfsame welkin ringing?” (lines 21–24). Against this background of nationalist fervour encapsulated by declarations of “O Canada” and the “native maple,” F. R. Scott and other modernist poets were attempting to develop and define a more rigorous, experimental, and particularly international poetry—a poetry A. J. M. Smith (1902–1980) would call “cosmopolitan” in the Preface to the 1943 anthology The Book of Canadian Poetry (1943; rev. 1948, 1957). The modernist poetic and political opposition to the rhetoric of the local and national obsessions that had kept the “selfsame welkin ringing” for the first fifty years of Canadian literary history marked a shift in Canadian literature and culture.
While the above is a standard introduction to Canadian nationalist topics and values and the cosmopolitan perspective, as introduced by male critics/poets such as A. J. M. Smith and F. R. Scott, there also exists a parallel and somewhat different poetic history that chronicles not the “maple leaf forever,” but subtle expressions of Eastern influence and sensibility. The all-but-forgotten Canadian modernist poet Louise Morey Bowman (1882–1944), hailed in her day by American modernist poets, questions colonial presence in India in poems such as “Garden in Agra,” which she begins by asking, “Cool-blossomed English garden! What wide fate / Set you in burning breathless India?” (lines 1–2). The poem was originally published in Canadian Author’s Association Poetry Year Book 1926–1927 and republished by Wanda Campbell as part of her early Canadian women’s poetry recovery project in Hidden Rooms (2000). Bowman likewise works in the Japanese form of Hokku, showing—like many of the American modernist poets, and well ahead of her male Canadian modernist counterparts—the influence of Japanese poetics on the sparseness and form of modernist poetry. Part of Dream Tapestries (1924), “Twelve Hokku on a Canadian Theme” and “Life Sequence (In the Hokku Manner)” are republished in Campbell’s Hidden Rooms as early examples of the Japanese influence on Canadian women’s poetry. Bowman, among others, illustrates how women’s voices and the influence of the East on Canadian modernism and the Canadian literary tradition have been, as Campbell’s title clearly shows, hidden and excluded from Canadian history and the Canadian literary canon. This book is dedicated to the study of Canadian prose fiction and non-fiction. However, like Wanda Campbell’s anthology of early Canadian women’s poetry, this project is an attempt to recover women’s voices, and particularly those Canadian women influenced by Japan, India, and China.
The study of Canadian literature as a field and the efforts to define Canadian nationalism emerged together in the 1960s, with contributions by a number of leading writers and critics, including most famously George Grant, Northrop Frye, Margaret Atwood, and Robert Kroetsch. While I will be outlining their theories of Canadian nationalism—particularly for a readership in Asia, who may not be familiar with their ideas—I will intersperse and conclude this survey by questioning the ways in which the ideas about nationhood promoted by these writers and thinkers are complicated or reinforced by the history and literature relating to Asian Canadian identity.
In 1965, nearly a hundred years after confederation, George Grant would ask “can the disappearance of an unimportant nation be worthy of serious grief?” (3). In his “Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism” Grant names many of the historical characteristics to which Canada looked in defining its collective identity. These qualities include, most succinctly “[t]he inherited determinism not to be Americans” (6) and allegiance to the British Crown as expressing “a continuing loyalty to the state” (6). Canada, writes Grant, was based on the “inchoate desire to build . . . a society with a greater sense of order and restraint than freedom-loving republicanism would allow” (6). Grant argues that “Canada’s disappearance was a matter of necessity” (4) and further that “[t]he aspirations of progress have made Canada redundant” (4). However, in the years of early nationhood (defined in this study as 1867–1929), Canada, in Grant’s estimation, was still attempting to preserve aspects of the British Crown in order to “distinguish [Canada] from the United States” (7). This summation undoubtedly explains aspects of early Canadian identity and culture. But in the case of writers such as Sara Jeannette Duncan, while connections to Britain existed in a limited sense, Canadian identity was expressed chiefly in setting itself apart from both the British and the American influences. This can be widely observed in early Canadian literature. However, Grant is not writing about or referring to the literature of early Canada; rather, his thesis is that “[t]he purpose of life is consumption” (7). When looking at early and contemporary Canada from an economic perspective, Grant’s estimations hold some truth. Canada’s economic ties with Britain in the nineteenth century were a necessary reality, just as, in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, trade with the United States and participation in global corporations is part of the Canadian and global economy. However, while the early Canadian women writers do express some relationship to Britain, chiefly through trade, the literature expresses a stronger determination to define Canadian identity as different from both British and American identity.
Northrop Frye, writing in the same year as George Grant, in his “Conclusion to A Literary History of Canada” (ed. Carl F. Klinck 1965) in referring to the literary history of Canada, settles on a single metanarrative for Canada as a nation. Of further importance to this study, Frye connects Canadian identity formation to the East. He writes, “Canada began as an obstacle, blocking the way to the treasures of the East, to be explored only in the hope of finding a passage through it. English Canada continued to be that long after what is now the United States had become a defined part of the Western world” (10). While Frye goes on to echo Grant’s determination of Canada as defined partly in opposition to the United States and partly through its alignment with the values and history of Britain, Frye does not see Canada as being lost to global trade or the American market economy. Rather, Frye develops the difference between Canada and the United States by suggesting that “[t]o enter the United States is a matter of crossing an ocean; to enter Canada is a matter of being silently swallowed by an alien continent” (11). Surely this difference signifies a terrifying unknowability to Canadian identity, although he later concludes this conversation by suggesting that “[t]he Canadian genius for compromise is reflected in the existence of Canada itself” (12). Ultimately, however, Frye argues the defining quality of Canada “is the position of the frontier in the Canadian imagination” (12). Frye explains that “[t]he frontier was primarily what separated the Canadian, physically or mentally, from Great Britain, from the United States, and even more important, from other Canadian communities” (13). In Frye’s summation, Canadians and Canadian literature were and would continue to be characterized by “what we may provisionally call a garrison mentality” (14). According to Frye “[t]he real terror comes when the individual feels himself becoming an individual, pulling away from the group, losing the sense of driving power that the group gives him, aware of a conflict within himself far subtler than the struggle of morality against evil” (15). It is in this context Frye postulates that it becomes easier to build more garrisons; the result is that this blocks the creative development of the nation and stymies the artist with “a dominating herd-mind in which nothing original can grow” (15).
Margaret Atwood’s own writing would belie this easy summation, and her own theory of Canadian literature would respond to Frye’s dismal proclamation about the climate of Canadian creativity. Writing in 1972, Atwood notes in Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature that “[u]ntil recently, reading Canadian literature has been for me and for everyone else who did it a personal interest, since it was not taught, required or even mentioned (except with derision) in the public sphere” (20). Certainly Frye’s contentions about the creative climate of Canada paints a picture of an environment hostile to innovation and individual talent—an environment that brings attention, like Atwood suggests, to the national literature through derision.
Atwood sets out to respond to this proclamation and, in the process, answer two questions in her work: “What’s Canadian about Canadian literature, and why should we be bothered” (20–21)? Without a doubt both these questions are pertinent to this study, although Atwood’s answer forms only a portion of the literary/critical history of Canadian literature and, perhaps, something of a response to Frye. Atwood contends that the study of Canadian literature “ought to be comparative” (23), going on to suggest that “it is by contrast that distinctive patterns show up most strongly” (23) and that “[t]o know ourselves, we must know our own literature; to know ourselves accurately, we need to know it as a part of literature as a whole” (23).
The necessity of the comparative component of knowing the self and the literature of the nation in relation to other nationalities and literatures applies to the study I am here undertaking. However, Atwood does not include Asian literature or culture in her study and refers primarily to comparing the literature of Canada to that of the Anglo-American tradition. Atwood goes on to respond specifically to Frye’s suggestion that knowing the self is at least in part “the same as the answer to another question: ‘Where is here’” (23)? The claim for the distinctiveness of Canadian literature and the Canadian experience are in part to be found in the answers to these questions. According to Atwood and echoing Frye, “Canada is an unknown territory for the people who live in it” (24) and “[w]hat a lost person needs is a map of the territory” (24). What Atwood provides is a guide and a “central symbol for Canada” (25) in the trope of survival. Atwood charts this central symbol of survival in the literature of English and French Canada from the early literature that deals with physical survival to the literature of the 1970s that deals with what Atwood characterizes as “spiritual survival” (26).
Robert Kroetsch, in “Disunity as Unity: A Canadian Strategy” (1989), observes, “The shared story . . . has traditionally been basic to nationhood” (61), yet he contends that “Canadians cannot agree on what their meta-narrative is” and that “this very falling-apart of our story is what holds our story together” (61). Referring to Yeats’ observation that “the centre does not hold” (62) Kroetsch argues that “[i]t was this very decentering that gave a new energy to countries like Canada” (62). Further, “Canada is supremely a country of margins, beginning from the literal way in which almost every city borders on a wilderness” (62). Returning to the earlier discussions of Grant and Frye, Kroetsch also suggests that “[w]e define ourselves, often, as the cliché has it, by explaining to Americans that we aren’t British, to the British that we aren’t Americans” (66); similarly, he echoes Atwood’s trope of survival when he notes, “[W]e survive by working with a low level of self-definition and national definition” (66). By highlighting what he sees as a lack of a single metanarrative to sum up the diversity of Canadians and the multiplicity of definitions of Canadians, Kroetsch identifies a key to understanding Canadian culture. He notes that “[w]e maintain ethnic customs long after they’ve disappeared in the country of origin” (66) and “[i]n Canadian writing there is little sense of a privileged self at the centre” (66). According to Kroetsch, the “archetypal Canadian” is characterized “by refusing to become a Canadian” (67).
I draw attention to these Canadian writers and critics because they highlight a number of the qualities that make Canada and Canadians distinctive; some or all of these characteristics contribute to the interactions and formations of relationships with and between Canadian writers and their travel to and writing about China, Japan, and India and, more broadly, to the subject of this study. Certainly many Canadian writers, particularly in their travels in China, Japan, and India, define themselves and their reactions to places and people—and thus promote their ideas about different cultures—with and against British and American norms, identities, and writing. Many Canadian writers also take the opportunity in their writing to promote various forms of Canadian nationalism.
The question that emerges is how these definitions of nationhood and nationalism that emerge in the writing about the East or reflecting the Eastern influence reinforce or support the theories of nationhood put forth by Grant, Frye, Atwood, and Kroetsch and if and how these theories work alongside the histories and stories of Asian Canadians? Certainly Atwood’s concept of survival could apply to the struggles for and emergence of an Asian Canadian presence in the literature; however, this is not in fact articulated as part of her study. Even Frye’s notion of a “garrison mentality,” constructed by Canadians to protect them from the Indigenous inhabitants and the wilderness, could arguably be seen as re-enacted in the position Canada eventually took toward immigrants from Asia and Asian Canadians. Extending this idea further, Canadians arguably used a form of garrison to incarcerate Japanese Canadians when they saw them as a threat; even before this, the federal government enacted laws to keep out Chinese, Japanese, and South Asian immigrants, thus forming a sort of national garrison around a predominantly white national identity. Certainly Kroetsch’s theory allows for a multiplicity of narratives of nationhood: it undermines the overdetermined and totalizing meta-narratives of nationhood that require an essentially white-settler history and, thus, allows for the margins and marginalized identities to become part of the fabric of nationhood.
Smaro Kamboureli, however, in the introduction to the first edition of Making a Difference: Canadian Multicultural Literature in English (2007), questions this idea of marginalization: “if we consider these authors in the various contexts that have produced their writing, it becomes apparent that ‘marginalization’, from an individual as well as a collective perspective, is impossible to define in any stable way” (xix). Thus, a clear articulation of the stories of nationhood that includes Asian presence from and before confederation requires not only a re-examination of the history and stories that are excluded in the nationalisms articulated by the founding and establishment Canadian scholars but also a rewriting of the story of nation to include Asian stories and origins as part of the emergence of Canada as a nation. Rather than relegating Asian Canadian presence to the “impossible to define” (Kamboureli xix) margins, this study intends to put the Asian influence on Canadian nation-building at the centre. Scholars such as Arun Mukherjee contend that “Canadian nationalism, for us non-whites, is a racist ideology that has branded us un-Canadian by acts of omission and commission” (“Canadian Nationalism” 89). A number of recent writers and scholars attempt to address the “acts of omission and commission” in the white-settler-culture, nation-building narrative, including Roy Miki and Smaro Kamboureli, and what follows will examine their perspectives.
This study intends to take the story of Canada back to the beginnings of Asian immigration and weave together the history of Canada with the emergence of the history and identities of Asian Canadians as part of the story of the historical creation of a Canadian national identity. Further, this study will emphasize that the influence of Asia on the formation of Canadian identity, culture, and literature has been a part of the story from the very beginnings of the nation—not just from within, but also from without. In this case I am referring to the Canadians who travelled to Asia and brought back stories, artifacts, religious experiences, and culture to their communities in Canada, as well as to the influence on Canadians from Asians living in Canada and becoming Canadians. I am also referring to the circulation of ideas about Asia that came from literature, art, and artifacts that were brought into the nation and into individual homes, museums, and public places through missionary activities, trade, and travel, and the impact of Asian culture on Canada through the impact of art and ideas from Asia. As the editors of ReCalling Early Canada: Reading the Political in Literary and Cultural Production (2005) note, “[E]arly Canadian artifacts offer particularly revealing sites in which it is possible to trace the gains and losses of the imposition of the nation—with its demands of cohesion and homogeneity—upon the many and various preoccupations of artists, writers, and cultural commentators” (Blair, Coleman, Higginson, York xxvii). An examination of the “early Canadian artifacts” thus shows the traces of the Asian influence and can contribute to “counteract[ing] the racist nationalist discourse of two founding nations” (Mukherjee, “Canadian Nationalism” 82) that would erase the presence of Asian Canadians from the otherwise homogenizing original nation-building story. This offers the possibility of both recuperating and reconfiguring the nation-building narrative to show a story of exchange and influence from Asia rather than merely erasing the differences or showing the racism of the early stories of nationhood.
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对于《Eastern Encounters：Canadian Women’s Writing about the East, 1867-1929》这本书，我最先联想到的画面是维多利亚时代的女性，她们或许身着长裙，手持羽毛笔，在煤油灯下，将脑海中那些关于遥远东方的奇幻景象，或是旅途中所见所闻，一丝不苟地记录在泛黄的纸页上。1867年至1929年，这段跨度相当大的时间，恰好经历了加拿大联邦的诞生及其早期发展，同时也是西方世界对东方世界充满神秘感和探索欲的时期。我设想，这些加拿大女性作家，她们的“东方”体验可能源自多种途径：或是亲身经历的远行，比如随同外交官或商人丈夫前往亚洲；抑或是通过阅读、听闻，以及当时流行的旅行文学和博物馆展品所构建的想象。我特别感兴趣的是，她们的笔触是否会流露出那个时代女性普遍的细腻和敏感？她们的作品中，是否会穿插对家庭、婚姻、社会地位的考量，而这些考量又如何与她们对“东方”的描绘交织在一起？这本书所涵盖的“East”究竟有多广阔？是指亚洲大陆，还是也包含其他地域？而且，这些女性作家，她们的身份背景是否也多样化？是否有原住民女性的视角，或者来自不同族裔的女性？我希望这本书能够提供一些鲜活的案例，让我们得以了解，在那个尚未完全摆脱殖民主义阴影的时代，加拿大女性是如何在异国情调和文化差异的碰撞中，书写属于她们自己的“东方故事”，并在这个过程中，如何开始构建自己的文学声音和身份认同。
评分这本书的名字听起来就充满了吸引力：《Eastern Encounters：Canadian Women’s Writing about the East, 1867-1929》。光是这个书名，就让我对内容充满了好奇和期待。首先，"Eastern Encounters" 这个词组本身就暗示着一种跨越地理和文化的相遇，可能是旅途中的惊奇，也可能是观念上的碰撞。而“Canadian Women’s Writing”则将焦点锁定在加拿大女性作家的视角，这本身就非常有意义。在那个特定的历史时期（1867-1929），加拿大作为一个年轻的国家，其女性在文学创作中的声音可能尚未被充分关注和研究。她们笔下的“East”，又是指哪个“East”呢？是遥远的东方，还是加拿大自身东部的某些地域，亦或是某种象征性的“东方主义”的视角？这种模糊性反而激发了我的想象，我迫不及待地想知道，这些女性作家是如何通过她们的文字，来理解、描绘、甚至挑战当时社会对“东方”的刻板印象的。她们的“邂逅”是怎样的？是积极的探索，还是带有某种殖民主义的印记？我想，这本书的价值就在于它可能为我们揭示一段被忽视的文学史，让我们得以窥见加拿大女性在塑造国家文化认同过程中所扮演的重要角色，尤其是在她们与“东方”的复杂关系中。我尤其好奇，在那个时代，女性作家在面对“东方”时，其视角与男性作家会有何不同？她们的写作是否更多地关注人性的细腻情感，还是对异域风情的浪漫化想象？
评分当我看到《Eastern Encounters：Canadian Women’s Writing about the East, 1867-1929》这个书名时，我的脑海里立刻涌现出一幅幅画面：身着长袍的异域女子，古老的东方建筑，以及身处其中的加拿大女性身影。1867年至1929年，这是一个动荡而又充满变革的年代，加拿大作为一个年轻的国家，正在积极地塑造自己的文化面貌。而“东方”对于那个时代的加拿大人来说，无疑是一个充满神秘色彩和无限遐想的词汇。这本书以“加拿大女性作家”为切入点，来探讨她们对“东方”的描绘，这本身就极具价值。我设想，这些女性作家，她们的“东方”体验可能来源多样，或是随同家人远渡重洋，亲身经历异域风情；抑或是通过阅读、展览，在想象中构建出一个“东方世界”。我最感兴趣的是，她们的笔触会呈现出怎样的独特性？是否会更加细腻地展现人与人之间的情感交流，对异域文化的理解和共鸣？或者，她们的作品中是否会隐含着那个时代女性所面临的社会压力和身份焦虑，而这种焦虑又如何投射到她们对“东方”的描绘之中？这本书或许能够为我们揭示一段不为人知的文学史，让我们得以一窥加拿大女性在早期文学创作中，是如何通过“东方”的意象，来表达她们的所思所感，并在这个过程中，为加拿大文学增添独特的色彩。
评分这本书的名字《Eastern Encounters：Canadian Women’s Writing about the East, 1867-1929》，光是读起来就有一种古典而又引人入胜的韵味。我脑海中浮现出的画面是，在那个火车和蒸汽轮船是主要交通工具的时代，加拿大女性作家们，她们的目光越过了广袤的国土，投向了那片充满异域风情的“东方”。我好奇的是，她们笔下的“东方”究竟是怎样一番景象？是否是色彩斑斓的市集，悠扬的丝竹之声，还是古老神秘的寺庙？抑或是，她们所面对的“东方”，更多的是一种文化上的符号，一种被当时西方世界建构出来的想象？1867年到1929年，这个时期加拿大本身也在经历着快速的社会变革和身份认同的重塑。我猜测，这些女性作家在书写“东方”时，她们的个人经历、社会背景，以及作为加拿大女性的身份，都会深刻地影响她们的创作。这本书是否会深入探讨，她们是如何在这种跨文化的书写中，反思自身的文化背景，甚至是在某种程度上，与她们所处的父权社会进行对话？我特别期待能看到一些具体的作品分析，了解她们在语言运用、叙事结构、人物塑造等方面，是如何将“东方”的元素融入加拿大文学的传统之中，又或者，是如何挑战和颠覆了这些传统。这本书的名字本身就暗示着一种“相遇”的过程，我希望书中能够展现出这种相遇的多样性和复杂性，而不仅仅是简单的异域描绘。
评分《Eastern Encounters：Canadian Women’s Writing about the East, 1867-1929》——这个书名本身就带着一种历史的厚重感和文化探索的野心。我脑海中首先浮现的是，在那个信息相对闭塞但又充满着对外探索欲望的时代，加拿大女性作家们是如何通过文字，来描绘她们心中的“东方”。1867年，加拿大联邦成立，国家认同的建构正是方兴未艾。而1929年，二战的阴影尚未完全笼罩，但世界格局已然开始悄然改变。在这段重要的历史时期，女性文学的声音往往容易被主流叙事所淹没。因此，这本书聚焦于“Canadian Women’s Writing about the East”这一特定主题，显得尤为珍贵。我猜测，这些女性作家笔下的“East”，可能包含着她们的亲身经历、道听途说，甚至是她们通过阅读西方文献所构建的想象。她们的视角，与同时期的男性作家会有何不同？她们的作品中，是否会流露出更多对当地人民生活、情感的关怀，还是更多地停留在对异域风情的猎奇式描绘？我期待这本书能够揭示，这些女性作家是如何在她们的创作中，融入了加拿大自身的历史进程，又是如何在“东方”的视角下，反思和定义她们作为加拿大女性的身份。这种“遭遇”，是积极的文化交流，还是带有时代的局限性？我希望能在这本书中找到答案，了解这段被埋藏的文学史。
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